History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12)

This scholarly volume surveys the tangled histories of Egypt, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria during the early second millennium BCE. Drawing on a wealth of archaeological evidence, it presents more than twelve hundred colored plates that bring ancient cities, royal monuments and everyday artifacts to life. The author traces how the fertile lands of Syria, wedged between powerful neighbors, became a crossroads of competing empires, while Babylon’s first Chaldean dynasty began to assert its influence across Mesopotamia.

A central theme is the rise of the Hyksos, the foreign rulers who seized Egypt at the close of the 14th dynasty and established their capital at Avaris. The narrative follows their adoption of Egyptian customs, the ensuing resistance from Theban princes, and the early wars that reshaped the Nile valley. Meanwhile, the book examines the early reign of Hammurabi in Babylon, his legal reforms, and the shifting allegiances of Syrian city‑states caught between these expanding powers.