Benedictus de Spinoza

Born in Amsterdam in 1632, Spinoza grew up in the city’s Portuguese-Jewish community. Known variously as Baruch, Bento, and Benedictus, he became one of the most original thinkers of the early modern period. In 1656, he was formally excluded from Amsterdam’s Jewish community because of his unorthodox views.

Spinoza supported himself as a lens grinder and lived a quiet, independent life devoted to study and writing. His philosophy combined rigorous reason with a naturalistic understanding of God, whom he identified with Nature rather than with a personal creator separate from the world.

His best-known work, Ethics, was published after his death in 1677, alongside writings including the Theological-Political Treatise. Spinoza’s ideas about freedom, emotion, democracy, Scripture, and human happiness have made him one of the most influential philosophers of the modern era.